Biodiversity Loss

Primary reference(s)

IPBES. Glossary: Biodiversity loss. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Accessed 21 January 2025.

IPBES. 2019. Global Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Brondizio, E. S., Settele, J., Díaz, S., Ngo, H. T. (eds). IPBES Secretariat, Bonn, Germany. Accessed 21 January 2025.

Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. 2020. Global Biodiversity Outlook 5. Montreal. Accessed 21 January 2025.

Annotations

Key relevant UN convention / multilateral treaty

The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) has three main objectives: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources.

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022) supports the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and builds on the Convention’s previous Strategic Plans, setting out an ambitious pathway to reach the global vision of a world living in harmony with nature by 2050. Among the Framework’s key elements are 4 goals for 2050 and 23 targets for 2030.

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, also referred to as the Bonn Convention and the Convention on Migratory Species (1979), is an environmental treaty under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme for the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats.

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (1971) provides the framework for the conservation and use of wetlands and their resources.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also referred to as CITES (1973), is an intergovernmental agreement which aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

Drivers

The direct drivers of change leading to biodiversity loss include direct exploitation of organisms, through activities such as overfishing, hunting, poaching, and unsustainable harvesting of plants and animals that deplete populations faster than they can recover (Prakash et al., 2022). In addition, changes in land and sea resulting from increasing urbanisation, agriculture, logging, mining, infrastructure development, and other land use changes lead to the destruction and fragmentation of natural habitats, making it difficult for species to survive and reproduce (Hald-Mortensen, 2023).

Climate change is also a major driver of biodiversity loss, with alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather events disrupting ecosystems, forcing species to migrate, adapt or perish (IPCC, 2022; Wudu et al., 2023; Shivanna, 2022). This can also lead to an increase in invasive species as species move into new ecosystems in which they can survive. Non-native species can also be introduced by human activity and can outcompete, prey on, or bring diseases to native species, leading to declines or extinctions (Clements, 2021). Finally, pollution and contaminants such as pesticides, heavy metals, plastics, and industrial pollutants degrade natural habitats and harm or kill organisms (Singh et al., 2023).

The direct drivers result from an array of underlying causes (indirect drivers), underpinned by societal values and behaviours such as production and consumption patterns, human population dynamics and trends, trade, technological innovations, and local through global governance (IPBES, 2019).

Climate change, a primary driver of biodiversity loss, alters habitats, disrupts ecological processes, and increases the vulnerability of species to extinction. Conversely, biodiversity loss exacerbates climate change by reducing carbon sequestration and increasing greenhouse gas emissions. Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, floods, and droughts, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change, further impacting biodiversity through habitat destruction and population decline (IPCC, 2022; Wudu et al., 2023; Shivanna, 2022).

Land-use change, driven by factors like agriculture, urbanisation, and infrastructure development, is a major contributor to habitat loss and fragmentation. This directly impacts biodiversity and can also increase the risk of other hazards like soil erosion, flooding, and water pollution (Hald-Mortensen, 2023).

Pollution, including air, water, and soil pollution, poses a significant threat to biodiversity. These pollutants can directly harm organisms, alter ecosystem processes, and reduce habitat quality. In turn, biodiversity loss can exacerbate pollution problems by weakening ecosystem resilience and reducing the ability of ecosystems to filter pollutants (Singh et al., 2023).

Invasive species, often facilitated by human activities and climate change, can outcompete native species, leading to biodiversity loss. Conversely, biodiversity loss can create ecological opportunities for invasive species to establish and spread (Clements, 2021).

Impacts

Biodiversity provides numerous ecosystem services that are critical to human wellbeing at present and in the future. Biodiversity loss will therefore have significant direct human health impacts if ecosystem services, such as pollination, water purification, flood control, and soil fertility, are no longer adequate to meet social needs (Walz et al., 2021). This has multiple knock-on effects, such as a decline in food security, as reductions in fish stocks, crop diversity, and other food sources threaten communities reliant on natural resources, particularly for Indigenous people who manage 25% of the world area and 80% of biodiversity (Garnett et al., 2018). 

In parallel, it can also affect livelihoods and income, with sectors such as agriculture, forestry, and fisheries facing economic impacts due to declining resources and ecosystem services. Furthermore, biodiversity loss can lead to cultural losses, as many cultures have deep connections with local biodiversity. Its loss can erode cultural identity and traditional knowledge, which can ultimately increase local migration and, occasionally, may even lead to or exacerbate political conflict (Gavin et al., 2015). 

In addition, the biophysical diversity of microorganisms, flora, and fauna provides important benefits for biological, health, and pharmacological sciences. Loss in biodiversity may limit the discovery of potential treatments for many diseases and health problems and can lead to the emergence and spread of infectious diseases, as diverse ecosystems can buffer against disease outbreaks (Williams et al., 2021) through the ‘dilution effect’ (Ferraguti et al., 2021). 

In 2009, a group of researchers identified the nine processes that regulate the stability and resilience of the Earth system. They proposed quantitative planetary boundaries within which humanity can continue to develop and thrive for generations to come, provided that the boundaries are not crossed (Richardson et al., 2023; Steffen et al., 2015; Rockström et al., 2009). The researchers highlighted that transgressing one or more planetary boundaries may be deleterious or even catastrophic due to the risk of crossing thresholds triggering non-linear, abrupt environmental change at the continental-to-planetary scale. As of 2023, six boundaries, including biosphere integrity (biodiversity loss and extinctions), were crossed, while others were in imminent danger of being crossed (Richardson et al., 2023).

Multi-hazard context

The figure below summarises common interactions between biodiversity loss and other hazards. This information should be used with caution and not be solely relied upon in disaster risk management, particularly as some interactions may not have been included. Note that hazardous events occurring together or in proximity in space or time may not necessarily cause, amplify, or be otherwise related to one another. Specific examples of multi-hazard context can be found in the ‘Hazard drivers’ and ‘Impacts’ sections above.

Multi-hazard diagram

Risk Management

The following main interventions (‘levers’) to generate transformative change by tackling the underlying causes of the deterioration of nature are suggested by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: develop incentives and widespread capacity for environmental responsibility and eliminate perverse incentives; reform sectoral and segmented decision-making to promote integration across sectors and jurisdictions; take pre-emptive and precautionary actions in regulatory and management institutions and businesses to avoid, mitigate, and remedy the deterioration of nature, and monitor their outcomes; manage for resilient social and ecological systems in the face of uncertainty and complexity, to deliver decisions that are robust in a wide range of scenarios; and strengthen environmental laws and policies and their implementation, and the rule of law more generally (IPBES, 2019). 

It is also important to consider integrated approaches to addressing biodiversity loss along with interventions that also address other related crises such as climate change and pollution (Schlaepfer & Lawler, 2023; Wudu et al., 2023). 

Early warning systems for biodiversity loss are essential for timely intervention and effective conservation strategies.

Monitoring

The section and the table below offer an overview of monitoring for biodiversity loss. This information can be used for forecasting within a national early warning system (EWS). Since EWS capacities and processes differ across countries, the most current and specific information regarding EWS should be obtained from the appropriate national or regional agency/authority responsible for disaster management.